The foreigners who ruled in India for a long time prior to the advent of Muslims and British were the Yavanas, Sakas and the Kusanas. The history of India from the second century BCE to third century CE is related more to these foreigners who came from Central and Western Asia, than the Indian kings. They have ruled in different parts of north India for almost five hundred years. Although these foreign invaders achieved political and military powers, they failed to conquer India culturally. They influenced all spheres of our life but could not touch the core principals of the Indian culture. A foreign historian had rightly remarked that though foreigners managed to invade India, occupy and rule her land, but they were never able to conquer her culturally instead they adopted our culture. These foreigners. became so mingled within our society that today it is difficult to trace them out from the indigenous ones. A large number of their inscriptions and coins are found in all over north India, on which they depicted their names, epithets, deeds and figures. The author has utilized these inscriptions and coins which give more details about them as the principal source and have come to the conclusion after carefully examining the readings of controversial passage offered by different scholars with the help of facsimiles wherever available.
Dr. Suman Jain is a Professor in Palaeography and Epigraphy in the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. She did Ph.D. from Banaras Hindu University in 1992. During her student life and as a research scholar, she had earned many distinctions and fellowships. She began her career as Lecturer in the Department of Ancient Indian History and Culture. Vasant Kanya Mahavidyalaya, affiliated to B.H.U. in 1993 and joined Banaras Hindu University as Lecturer in Palaeography and Epigraphy in 1996. She is actively involved in many research activities and regularly participate in seminars and conferences. She has many research papers in various journals and four books on palaeography and epigraphy to her credit. She is a life member of the Executive Council of Numismatic Society of India: Women Polytechnic Institute. Allahabad; Chairperson of Jan Shikshan Sansthan, Mirzapur and President of ABISS (Varanasi Zone), Uttar Pradesh. Currently. she is engaged in a project work on Tathagataguyaka - A Lost Buddhist Manuscript under the scene sponsored by the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi.
The foreigners who ruled in India for a long time prior to the advent of Muslims and British were the Yavanas, Sakas and the Kusanas. The history of India from the 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE is related more to these foreigners who came from Central and Western Asia, than the Indian kings. They have ruled in different parts of north India for almost five hundred years. Although these foreign invaders achieved political and military power, they failed to conquer India culturally. They influenced all spheres of our life but could not touch the core principle of the Indian culture. A foreign historian had rightly remarked that though foreigners managed to invade India, occupy and rule her land but they were never able to conquer her culturally instead they adopted our culture. These foreigners became so mingled within our society that today it is difficult to trace them out from the indigenous ones. A large number of their inscriptions and coins are found all over north India on which they depicted their names, epithets, deeds and figures. I have utilized these inscriptions and coins which give more details about them as the principle source and have come to the conclusion after carefully examining the readings of controversial passage offered by different scholars with the help of facsimiles wherever available. The whole work is divided in to five chapters: First chapter deals with the background of India's relations with foreign countries. India had maintained relations with foreign nations since Vedic time. In the 14th century BCE, West Asian Hittite and Mitanni dynasties had adopted Indian names and worshipped Vedic deities, proved by their cuneiform inscriptions. Later, the Achaemenians maintained close relations with India during the Mauryan period and even after that this relationship was further strengthened through the propagation of Buddhism. Thus, India's relations with foreign countries during the period under study are very ancient. Second chapter is devoted to foreign influx in Indian society. Indeed the most interesting features of the post-Mauryan period of Indian history is the establishment of the foreign supremacy in whole north India by several alien powers, and the Yavanas was the first among them. Yavana word was derived from Old Persian, Yauna signifying originally the Ionian Greeks, but later, it has been used for all people of Greek nationality. After the Yavanas, the Sakas and Pahlavas came to India and played an important role in Indian politics. The ancient Indian literatures often mention the Sakas and Pahlavas together with the Yavanas. The Sakas soon changed themselves to their new environs and began to adopt Indian names and religious belief. They are also known to have contracted matrimonial alliances with Indian families as proved by their inscriptions and Indian literatures. The Sakas seem to have been overthrown y the Kusanas about the beginning of the Christian era. The suzerainty of the Kusana who played such dominant part of Indian politics, were a branch of the famous Yueh-chi tribe whose early history is noticed in several Chinese historical works. For the first time after the fall of Mauryan Empire this was vast empire which not only embraced really the whole of north India but also considerable territories outside it, as far as Central Asia. India was thus brought into close contact with the outside world. This period also witnessed important development in religion, literature and sculptures, especially the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, Gandhåra art, and appearance of Buddha figure. The third chapter deals about the Indianization of the foreigners, who got so much mixed up in the vast population of the country that now it is almost impossible to distinguish them from one to another. The bilingual coin struck by Demetrius mark the beginning of this new approach, which started the process of Indianization as early as 2nd century BCE. They adopted Indian divinities, symbols and sacred animals on their coins which points towards the gradual process of assimilation of foreigners in the progressive society. Fourth chapter describes the reactions and descriptions of foreigners in ancient Indian literature. The inroads of these foreign elements besides causing political disturbances brought immense social convulsions. Moreover, the foreigners being in the position of the ruling class, were invested with enough political power to determine the social and economic developments of the time. At this stage Indian society was faced with the dilemma whether or not to repel and throw out the intruders? These foreign invaders and settlers brought with them some new social traditions, alien customs and practices which were repugnant to the Indian society. All these foreign elements i.e. Yavana, Saka, Pahlava and the Kuşanas far from up setting the traditional social order and destroying the accepted cannons of morality and conduct were themselves being absorbed in the existing social system of the country. Fifth chapter interprets the foreign influence on Indian society and culture. The incoming of different ethnic groups could not maintain their individuality for any length of time, they learnt the language, adopted the names and faith of vanquished and became Indianized. This assimilation and integration was the Indian response to external challenges. But it will be a misinterpretation of the fact to say that the foreigners only took and gave nothing in return. On the other hand their contribution to the growth of Indian civilization had been rich, varied and immense. The Indians through reciprocity of culture had learnt much more from them. Conclusion is the last chapter. The objective of these incoming tribes, with their different languages, social traditions, diverse religions and philosophic ideas, did pose a potent challenge to the established civilization of India. The Indian response to this challenge was a positive one, assimilation and absorption. It absorbed the new ideas, adapted the alien, virtues and harmonized all the contradictions that came in her way, and fully assimilated them. This creative reaction has provided Indian civilization with vitality, diversity and continuity down the ages.
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