Prasthanathraya Comparative Studies Based on the Commentaries of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva (Set of 3 Books)

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Prasthanathraya Comparative Studies Based on the Commentaries of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva
The Philosophy of the Bhagavadgita	The Philosophy of the Upanisads	The Philosophy of the Vedanta Sutra

The Upanisads, which contain lofty philosophical teachings of the great seers, constitute the most authoritative source book for the Vedanta system of philosophy. However, there is no unanimity among the ancient exponents of Vedanta regarding the nature of the philosophy adumbrated in the Upanisads.

Dr. Chari's scholarly work attempts to make a dispassionate study of the philosophical passages of the fourteen Principal Upanisads by giving due consideration to not only the comments of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhava, but more importantly the authoritative views of Badarayana as enshrined in his classic Vedanta sutras. In the first part of the book, he presents the the important passages of the Upanisads along with English rendering indicating the variations in the interpretation by the three commentators and also discusses their philosophical implication with reference to the Vedanta doctrines developed in the post-Upanisadic period. In the second part he has attempted to consolidate the variety of philosophical thoughts scattered all over the Upanisads into coherent doctrines under five broad subjects: Brahma, jivatman, jagat, sadhana and parama-purusartha. In the final chapter he conclusively establishes on the basis of an objective evaluation of the views of the commentators that the Upanisads do not support the main tenets of Advaita such as the concept of Nirvisesa Brahman, the identity of jivatman and Brahman, the phenomenal character of the jagat and the doctrine of maya. The author maintains with sufficient textual support that the nature of the philosophy advocated by the Upanisads in Theistic Monism (savisesadvaita). This book, which is the first of its kind, presents an authentic and comprehensive exposition of the Philosophy of the Upanisads.

S.M. Srinivasa Chari is a Vedanta scholar trained up by eminent traditional teachers. He did his Ph.D. from University of Madras. His other published works are: Advaita and Visistadvaita - A study based on Vedanta Desika's Satadusani; Fundamentals of Visistadvaita Vedanta - A study based on Vedanta Desika's Tattva-mukta-kalapa; Vaisnavism-Its Philosophy, Theology and Religious Discipline; Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Alvars; and The Philosophy of the Vedantasutra - A study based on the evaluation ofthe commentaries of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva.

My book on The Philosophy of the Vedantasutra has attempted to establish on the basis of an objective evaluation of the comments of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva that the system of Vedanta adumbrated by Badaraya?a in his classic sutras is Theistic Monism (Savisesa Brahmadvaita). In this study an important question arises whether the Upanisads which constitute the foundation for the Vedanta system present the same philosophy. The ancient commentators on the Upanisads maintain divergent views on this matter. It is Idealistic Monism (Nirvisesa Brahmadvaita), according to Samkara, Theistic Monism (Savisesa Brahmadvaita) according to Ramanuja and Theistic Dualism (Dvaita), according to Madhva. Modern scholars, both European and Indian, who have written several books on the Upanisads including translations are also widely divided in their opinion, being generally influenced by the views of the ancient commentators. In order to find out the correct position, a detailed and dispassionate study of the Upanisads is undertaken in the present work.

**Contents and Sample Pages**

This scholarly work presents a comprehensive and authentic exposition of the philosophy of the Bhagavadgita as enshrined in the original text by according due consideration to the commentaries of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva. In the first part of the book, Dr. Chari makes an indepth study of the selected verses from each adhyaya and discusses their philosophical implications with particular reference to the Vedanta doctrines and connected issues advanced by the commentators while interpreting the crucial verses. This analytical and comparative study helps to understand how some of the basic tenets of Vedanta embedded in the Gita are explained differently by the commentators and also to assess the extent to which these are actually reflected in the original text. In the second part, the author has attempted to consolidate the various philosophical, theological and ethical ideas scattered all over the Gita and reconstruct them into coherent doctrines under three broad headings: Tattvas covering Paramatman, Jivatman and Jagat, Sadhana comprising Karma-Yoga, Jnana-yoga and Bhakti-yoga and Parama-purusartha. In the final chapter, Dr. Chari examines dispassionately the views of the commentators on these theories and comes to the conclusion with sufficient textual authority that some of the tenets of Samkara and also Madhva do not fully conform to the teachings of the Gita. This book, which is the first of its kind, throws new light on the philosophy of the Gita.

S.M. Srinivasa Chari is a Vedanta scholar trained up by eminent traditional teachers. He did his Ph.D. from University of Madras. His other published works are: Advaita and Visistadvaita - A study based on Vedanta Desika's Satadusani; Fundamentals of Visistadvaita Vedanta - A study based on Vedanta Desika's Tattva-mukta-kalapa; Vaisnavism - Its Philosophy, Theology and Religious Discipline; Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of the Alvars; The Philosophy of the Vedantasutra; and The Philosophy of Upanisads - A study based on the Evaluation of the Commentaries of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva.

Foreword

The Bhagavadgita is universally acclaimed as the greatest religious classic. It is of special importance to the Vedantins as it contains lofty philosophical theories taught directly by Lord Krsna dealing with tattva or the ultimate Reality, hita or the means of its attainment and purusartha or the Supreme Spiritual Goal. All the great Acaryas have accepted the Gita as the basic sourcebook of Vedanta. They have also written scholarly commentaries on it. According to tradition, prior to Ramanuja, there were ninety-five commentaries on the Gita, the Ramanuja-bhasya being regarded as the ninety-sixth. There is also close affinity in respect of the philosophical teachings of the Gita and Brahmasutras. All the exponents of Vedanta have therefore sought support from the Gita for the doctrines advanced by them.

Among the extant commentaries on the Bhagavadgita, the bhasyas of Samkaracarya, Ramanujacarya and Madhvacarya stand out eminently. Though the three Acarya maintain divergent views regarding some of the main tenets of Vedanta such as the nature of Paramatman (para tattva), the nature of the individual self jivatman., the relation of jivatman to Paramatman in terms of non-difference (abheda) and difference (bheda), the nature of the Supreme goal and the nature of the direct means to moksa, they generally agree with regard to the central theme of the Gita viz., that Lord Krsna is the supreme Being (para tattva) and that He is to be sought as the Supreme Goal.

When we come to the details of the doctrines, we find wide differences in the views advanced by the commentators while interpreting the crucial verses. Throughout the Gita, Lord Krsna is conceived as the Supreme Being para tattva and there is no higher Reality than him. He is regarded as parama-brahma, as the sole cause of the creation and dissolution of the universe and also the supporter of it (adhara). but Samkara, while interpreting a few verses, brings up the theory of two forms of Brahman as para or higher, devoid of all determinations nirguna and apara or lower Brahman, associated with maya and endowed with attributes (saguna). No where in the Gita there is any mention of Nirguna Brahman or Brahman conditioned by maya.

Regarding the jivatman, the Gita explicitly states that it is eternal (nitya) and also different from Paramatman. it also accepts the plurality of the jives (jiva-bahutva). But Samkara advances the theory of identity of jiva and Brahman and explains the plurality of jivas on the basis of one Brahman being conditioned by the limiting adjuncts upadhi in the form of several antahkaranas caused by maya. But there is no support in the Gita for the doctrine of maya as conceived by Samkara nor for the theory that jivas are conditioned selves. Right from the beginning to the end, the Gita acknowledges the difference between jiva and Paramatman. The term sadharmya used to describe the status of jiva in the state of moksa implies the difference between jiva and Paramatman even after it is liberated from bondage. The observance of bhakti-yoga as the means of attainment of Paramatman necessarily presupposes the difference between the jiva as the upasaka and Paramatman as the object of attainment (upasya). The verse which describes Paramatman as the uttama-purusa, since He transcends both ksara-purusa and aksara-purusa clearly acknowledge the difference between the jivas and Paramatman.

The subject of sadhana constitutes the central doctrine of the Gita. From the teachings contained in the eleventh adhyaya, it is obvious that Bhakti or Bhakti-yoga is the sole means of attaining Paramatman (Bhaktya tu ananyaya sakyah). But Samkara, however, advances the theory that jnana is the sole means to moksa (kevaladeva tattva-jnanat moksa praptih). If we go by the order I which the teaching about sadhana is presented, the Gita in adhyayas II-IV advocates the observance of karma-yoga and jnana-yoga. in the adhyaya VII it introduces bhakti-yoga as the means to attain Paramatman. thus it follows that according to the Gita, bhakti-yoga as aided by karma-yoga and jnana-yoga is the direct means to moksa. Recognizing this fact, Ramanuja states at the very outset of his Gita-bhasya, that Lord Krsna under the pretext of persuading Arjuna to fight the war, introduced bhakti-yoga as aided by karma-yoga and jnana-yoga, which is enjoine din the Upanisads as the direct means to the Supreme Goal (pandutanaya yuddha protsahana vyajena parama-purusartha laksana sadhanataya vedantoditam svavisayam jnana-karmanugrhitam bhakti-yogam avatarayamasa).

Even Bhaskara and Yadava Prakasa, who came after Samkara, acknowledge that karma-yoga and jnana-yoga are aids to bhakti-yoga. But Samkara alters this order and advances the view that jnana-yoga is the sole means to moksa and that bhakti or bhakti-yoga leads to jnana in the sense of direct realization of the identity of jiva and Brahman (atmaikya-jnana). Madhva also does not admit that jnana-yoga taught in the VIth adhyaya is an aid to bhakti-yoga. According to him, jnana-yoga which is also named as dhyana-yoga. According to him, jnana-yoga which is also named as dhyana-yoga and samadhi-yoga, is not different from bhakti-yoga outlined in adhyayas IX-XII. The same dhyana-yoga pursued with Bhakti-yoga leading to aparoksa-jnana or direct perception of Paramatman by means of which moksa is attained.

There are several such important points relating to tattvas, sadhana and purusartha on which the commentators hold divergent views. Only a dispassionate study of the Bhagavadgita along with the views of Badarayana as expressed in the Vedantasutras and the Upanisads, would reveal the correct position regarding the philosophical theories enunciated in the Gita. Though there are innumerable books written in English on the Gita most of which follow the commentary of Samkara, there are very few authoritative works attempting to present a comprehensive account of the philosophy of the Bhagavadgita based on an objective evaluation of the views of the three commentators.

It is highly commendable that Dr. S. M. Srinivasa Chari, who is a distinguished scholar, has undertaken an in-depth study of the Gita by examining dispassionately all the three bhasyas. In the first part of the book, he has judiciously selected the verses from each adhyaya bearing on the Vedanta doctrines and discussed their philosophical significance with reference to the divergent views advanced by the commentators. In the second part, he has attempted to consolidate the various thoughts scattered all over the Gita and reconstruct them into coherent doctrines under the broad headings viz., tattvas, sadhana and parama-purusartha. as one well trained by eminent traditional Acaryas and with his knowledge of the Upanisads and the Vedantasutras, as evidenced by his two scholarly books on this subject, he has ably presented an authentic and comprehensive exposition of the philosophy of the Bhagavadgita, this is undoubtedly an authoritative and scholarly work written for the first time in English. It will definitely throw new light on the philosophy of the Gita and will be very useful for a comparative study of Vedanta.

Preface

The Bhagavadgita is acknowledged by all Vedantins as one of the three sourcebooks of the Vedanta system of philosophy, the other two being the Upanisads and the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. It is accepted as a philosophical work devoted primarily to teach the fundamental doctrines of Vedanta viz., tattva or the ultimate Reality. Sadhana or the means of its realization and purusartha or the Supreme Goal. My earlier books on the Upanisads and the Vedantasutra based on an objective evaluation of the comments of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva have attempted to show that the main tenets of Advaita Vedanta are not reflected in these two basic sourcebooks. The present work attempts to make a similar study of the Bhagavadgita, with a view to determine the nature of the philosophical doctrines adumbrated in the verses of the Gita.

There is extensive literature on the Bhagavadgita contributed by eminent scholars both in India and abroad. Most of these are in the form of translations into English and other languages with notes, while some are expository. The present work is not intended to duplicate this kind of effort. Its scope is restricted to discuss selected verses of the Gita having a bearing on the philosophical theories, by according due consideration to the views of the three principal commentators as well as the teachings of the Upanisads and the Vedantasutra and present a consolidated and comprehensive exposition of the philosophy of the Gita. It is hoped that this book which is the first of its kind will throw new light on the philosophy of the Bhagavadgita.

In the preparation of this book, I have drawn material mostly from the original texts-the three basic commentaries on the Bhagavadgita by Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva, along with the Tatparya-candrika of Vedanta Desika (commentary on Ramanuja-bhasya), Gita-tatparya of Madhvacarya and Prameya-dipika of Jayatirtha (commentary on Madhva-bhasya). In the matter of rendering of the verses into English and explaining their significance in accordance with the respective schools of Vedanta, I have made use of the following books: Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadgita, Swami Adidevananda, Ramanuja Gita-bhasya and Dr. B. N. K. Sharma, The Bhagavadgita-bhasya of Madhvacarya. I acknowledge my indebtedness to these authors.

I must pay my respects to my revered Acarya, the late Gostipuram Sowmyanarayanacarya Swami to whom I owe my knowledge of Vedanta. I must also pay my respects to the late Sri Puttankottai Srinivasacharya Swami and Sri Saragur Varadacharya Swami under whom I studied the Gita-bhasya in the traditional style. I have derived help and guidance for understanding the crucial verses of the Gita from the traditional scholars, Sri K. S. Varadacharya, Sri N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya, Sri K. T. Pandurangi and Sri A. Haridasa Bhatta. I should also thanks Dr. N. S. Anantharangachar, the late Sri S. M. Krishnamachar, Sri S.K. Ramachandra Rao and Sri S. Srinivasachar, who have gone through the major part of the typescript and offered suggestions for improvement. My thanks are also due to all those who have helped me in one way or the other and in particular, to my wife and other family members without whose loving cooperation I would not have completed this book in my advanced age. I also express my grateful thanks to the eminent Sanskrit scholar, Sri Srivatsankacharya for writing a Foreword to this book.

THE Bhagavadgita, popularly known as Gita or the "Divine Song," is universally acclaimed as a distinctive religious classic. Its teachings have attracted the attention of many people across the world. Though it constitutes a part of the Mahabharata, the celebrated Hindu epic compiled by sage Vedavyasa, it enjoys the status of an independent philosophical treatise. In fact the Gita is one of the three basic source books for the Vedanta system of philosophy, the other two being the Upanisads and the vedantasutra of Badarayana. The Upanisads which are regarded as Vedanta, being the culminating part of the Vedas, contain the lofty philosophical teachings. The Vedantasutra codifies these teachings in the form of cryptic aphorisms. The Bhagavadgita elucidates the same teachings in the form of a versified dialogue between Lord Krsna and Arjuna. While the Upanisads as part of the Vedas enjoy the status of the Revealed Scripture (Sruti) , the Vedantasutra and the Gita are accorded the status of smrti or that which is based on sruti and also that which elucidates what is taught in the Vedas.

According to the traditional exponents of Vedanta, there is perfect conformity between the three works. The Gita itself in one of its verses mentions that the Brahmasutrasdetermine the purport of the crucial Upanisadic texts by adopting logical arguments. It also refers in a number of places to the Upanisadic texts." Badarayana often refers to the Gita as smrti text in support of the theories advanced in the Vedantasiura According to the traditional view, the same Vyasa who is the compiler of Mahabharata in which the Bhagavadgita is included, is also the author of the Vedantasutra. A popular verse extolling the greatness of the Bhagavadgita compares the Upanisads to the cow, the Gita to the milk drawn from it by the cowherd Gopala (Krsna), Arjuna to the calf and the men of wisdom to those who savour the nectar of the Gita.

Of the three basic classics of the Vedanta, tradition accords greater importance to the Bhagavadgita since the teachings contained in it are imparted directly by Lord Krsna to Arjuna. As the colophon at the end of each adhyaya indicates, it is called Upanisad, since it derives its thoughts from the Upanisads. It is regarded as brahma-vidya, since it is a treatise imparting the knowledge of Brahman. It is also characterized as yoga-sustra, since it expounds in detail the sadhana to be pursued for attaining the Supreme Being."

According to the commonly accepted view, the Gita comprises 700 verses. However, one of the editions, which is claimed to belong to pre-Samkara times, puts it as 745 verses. But on careful scrutiny it is found that the additional verses do not add anything new to what is mentioned in the other editions. Samkara explicitly states in his bhhasya on the Gita that Vedavyasa compiled the teachings of Lord Krsna to Arjuna in 700 verses." This view is endorsed both by Ramanuja and Madhva.

The Gita is divided into 18 adhyayas or chapters. Each deals with a major topic or theme as indicated in the colophon. The 18 adhyayas are further subdivided in to three parts known as satkas or hexads, each one covering six adhyayas. As will be seen in the next chapter, there is no unanimity among the commentators regarding the subject-matter of each adhyaya and also of the hexads.

Regarding the central theme of the Bhagavadgita, there is some difference of opinion among the three principal commentators. According to Samkara, the main objective of the Gita-sastra, as explained in the preface to his bhasya, is to teach the pravrtti-dharma and nivrtti-dharma, which is the means to the attainment of the Supreme Spiritual Goal. Pravttti-dharma means for Samkara, the performance of the prescribed Vedic deeds by dedicating them to the Supreme Being without any desire for fruits. The nivrtti-dharma involves renunciation of all deeds (karma). The former secures purity of the mind (sattva-suddhi) and the steadfastness in the knowledge of atman (jnana-nisthata), which in turn serves as the direct means to the final liberation. Thus, the central theme of the Gita-sastra is to teach the ways and means of attaining liberation from bondage, which is the Supreme Spiritual Goal (parama- nisreyas).

According to Ramanuja, the main theme of the Gita-sastra is the advocacy of bhakti-yoga as the direct means to the Supreme Goal. In a characteristic way, he states in the preface to his Gita-bhasya, that Lord Krsna, under the pretext of persuading Arjuna to fight the war, introduced bhakti-yoga, as aided by karma-yoga and jnana- yoga, which is enjoined in the Upanisads as the direct means to the Supreme Goal.

Madhva, in his preface to the Gita-bhasya, emphasises the importance of the Mahabharata as a work presented by Vyasa, who is himself an incarnation of Lord Visnu and who taught the path of duty and knowledge for the benefit of deserving individuals who had lost sight of nivrtti-dharma and jnana. Into such a work, he included the Gita in the form of a dialogue between Vasudeva and Arjuna epitomising the message of the whole epic. The Gita, which contains the essence of the entire Mahabharata, is helpful to overcome bondage and attain the Supreme Being.

Though there are differences in the matter of details regarding the main objective of the Gita-sastra, it is agreed by all the com- mentators that the teachings of the Gita are primarily directed towards the sadhana or the means of the attainment of the Supreme Goal. In other words, the main theme of the Gita is sadhana for moksa or liberation from bondage.

As a philosophical treatise constituting the basic sourcebook of Vedanta, it also deals with the other two important doctrines of Vedanta viz., tattva or the Ultimate Reality and purusartha or the Supreme Goal. As allied to the doctrine of tattva, the Gita covers the theories of jivatman and the cosmic universe (jagat). As related to the sddhana, it also deals extensively with ethical and religious pre-requisites.

While the commentators generally agree with regard to the broad subject-matter covered in the Bhagavadgita, they widely differ with regard to the nature of the doctrines. These differences can be conspicuously noticed in respect of the sudhana prescribed for the attainment of the Supreme Goal, which is the central theme of the Gita. The Gitarefers to karma-yoga, jnana-yoga also known as dhyana- yoga and bhakti-yoga as the means to moksa. While adhyayas II-VI primarily deal with karma-yoga and jnana-yoga, the adhyayas VII-XII are devoted to the teaching of the bhakti-yoga. An important issue which arises in this regard is: of these prescribed pathways, which one is the principal means and which one is the subordinate means. According to Samkara, jaana-yoga understood as the direct realisation of the true nature of the Self (atman) which is the same as Brahman, is the direct means to moksa. Ramanuja considers that the bhakti-yoga or the unceasing loving meditation on the Paramdtman as enunciated in the adhyayas VII-XII is the direct means to moksa, whereas karma-yoga and jnana-yoga understood as the realization of the true nature of the jivatman (jivatma-saksatkara) are subsidiary means (anga) to bhakti-yoga. Madhva advances a different view. The karma-yoga understood as the performance of the prescribed karmas or deeds without any desire for the results (niskama karmanusthana) along with jnana or the knowledge of the true nature of the jivatman and the Paramatman leads to bhakti-yoga which is termed as Paramatma-dbyana or meditation on Paramatman. Such a dhyana secures for the upasaka the vision of God (aparoksa jnana) and this serves as the direct means to moksa.

Another important theory on which the commentators widely differ is about the nature of the jivatman in relation to Paramatman. In the second adhyaya, the Gita teaches the nature of jivatman as distinct from the perishable physical body. It also describes in the later adhyayas about the nature of Paramatman who is conceived as Lord Krsna, also named as Vasudeva, and who is the creator, protector and controller of the universe. An important issue which arises in this connection is: whether Paramatman referred to in the Gita is the Para Brahman of the Upanisads or is he the Apara Brahman, or Brahman associated with maya, as conceived by Samkara. According to Ramanuja and Madhva, the Paramatman referred to in the Gita is the same Para Brahman of the Upanisads, whereas for Samkara, the theistic God in the name of Krsna or Vasudeva is the lower Brahman (apara brahma).

More importantly, the relation of jivatman to Paramatman has assumed great controversy. The issue which is raised in this regard is: whether jivatman and Paramatman. (Brahman) are two distinct real ontological entities or whether jiva is essentially the same as Brahman. Samkara maintains the latter view, whereas Ramanuja and Madhva subscribe to the former.

The Vedantasutra of Badarayana which codifies the teachings of the Upanisads is acclaimed by all as the fundamental source book for the system of Vedanta philosophy. Nevertheless several schools of thought such as the Advaita of samkara, the Visistadvaita of Ramanuja and the Dviata of Madhva have been developed from it, each one differing from the other in respect of major doctrines. This makes it difficult to determine the specific nature of the Vedanta philosophy as enunciated by Badarayana in his classic sutras apart from what is claimed by the respective commentators.

Dr. Chari's scholarly work attempts to brig out the views of Badarayana on the philosophy of Vedanta as enshrined in the sutras. He discusses comprehensively and in a systematic manner with reference to the selected sutra, the five fundamental doctrines of Vedanta namely, the nature of Brahman, the nature of the individual soul and its relation to Brahman, the nature of the universe and its relation to Brahman, the nature of the means to attain Brahman and the nature of the Supreme Goa. On the basis of an objective evaluation of the comments of three principal exponents of Vedanta, he has conclusively established that the Vedanta , he has conclusively established that the Vedanta philosophy of Badarayana is theistic monism, upholding the oneness of the Ultimate Reality as organically non-sentient cosmic matter. The book which is the first of its kind seeks to provide a deeper insight into the Vedantasutras.

S. M. Srinivas Chari was a Research Scholar at the University of Madras and a fellow of institute of philosophy at Amalner in Maharashtra.

Dr. Chari joined the Ministry of Education, Government of India, after the completion of his university career and worked in different capacities including the assignments at the Indian Height Commission, London and Indian Embassy, Washington D. C. He retired in 1976 as Joint Educational Adviser.

He has to his credit three scholarly works: Advaita and Visistadvaita - a study based on Vedanta Desika's Satadusani; Fundamentals of Visistadvaita Vedanta - a study based on Vedanta Desika's Tattvamukta-kalapa; and Philosophy and Theistic Mysticism of Alvars.

Most of the Indian philosophical systems in general and the expo- nents of the Vedanta system in particular are concerned with five basic doctrines. These are: (1) The nature of the Ultimate Reality which is known as Brahman in the Upanisads; (2) The nature of the individual soul (jivatman) and its relation to Brahman; (3) The nature of the universe (jagat) and its relation to Brahman; (4) The nature of the means (sadhana) to attain Brahman; and (5) The nature of the Supreme Goal (parama purusartha) known as moksa. As far as Vedanta is concerned, all the acaryas have acknowledged that the Upanisads which mainly deal with the philosophical theo- ries together with the Brahmasutras of Badarayana which systema- tize the Upanisadic teachings are the authoritative source-books for understanding these doctrines. Nevertheless, Samkara and his fol- lowers among the earliest extant schools, uphold the doctrine of Advaita or abhedavada as the true purport of Vedanta, according to which the undifferentiated Brahman (nirvisesa Brahma) alone is real, that jiva is identical with Brahman and the jagat is illusory in character. Bhaskara and his followers, who reject the nirvisesa Brahmavada, advocate the theory of bhed-bhedavada, according to which there is difference-cum-non-difference between Brahman and the two other ontological entities, jiva and jagat. Some others such as Yadava Prakasa, advance the theory that Brahman itself evolves into the sentient souls and non-sentient matter. The Dvaitavadins represented by Madhva and his followers, on the contrary, while admitted the reality of jiva and jagat, maintain absolute difference between Brahman and the jagat, Brahman and the souls and also difference between one .soul and the other but they do not accept any organic relationship between Brahman and the two other entities. The exponents of Visrgadvaita Vedanta, associated with Ramanuja, uphold that Brahman which is savisesa or endowed with attributes is the one Reality as organically related to both sentient souls (cit) and the non-sentient matter (acit) both of which are real (cid-acid-visita Brahma). All the acaryas, however, claim that the Brahmasutras support their respective doctrines. In the light of such conflicting views, each of which differ from the other in respect of the major philosophical theories, a modern student of philosophy is particular to know which individual school of thought is advanced by Badarayana in his classic sutras. Obvi- ously, he would not have advocated all the theories. It has to b either one of them or something different from them. With a vie' to determining which particular school of thought is well reflected in the Brahmasutra, Dr. S.M. Srinivasa Chari has undertaken the hard task of writing the present book under the title The Philosophy of the Vedantasutra. In this work he attempts to discuss the selected sutras bearing on the five major doctrines of Vedanta. He has dis- passionately examined the Bhasyas of Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva-the three principal extant ancient schools of Vedanta- to find out how far the views of Badarayana as expressed in the sutras corroborate the theories advanced by them. On the basis 0 an objective and indepth evaluation of the comments of the three. acaryas, Dr. S.M.S. Chari has sought to establish that the view expressed by Ramanuja in his classic Sribhasya go to conform fully to the sutras of Badarayana. He has not allowed any sectarian o preconceived ideas to influence his thesis.

A dispassionate study of the sutras as well explained in this book would bear testimony to the above conclusion. The definition 0 Brahman as the primary cause of the threefold cosmic process based on the Taittiriya Upanisad and the description of Brahman if terms of distinguishing attributes (dharmas) in several sutras, reveal beyond doubt that Badarayana conceives Brahman as savisesa. A large number of sutras explicitly state that jiva is different from Brahman (bheda-vyapadesat). Even in the state of mukti, jiva is stated to be distinct from Brahman (bhogamatra samya). The specific mention of jiva as an amsa of Brahman by Badarayana in order to reconcile bheda Srutis and abheda Srutis is a clear indication that he accepts non-difference between them in the sense that Brahman by virtue of its immanence in the jiva, as stated in the Antaryami Brahmana, is integrally related to jiva. The sutras do not explicitly mention the concept of maya as conceived by Samkara. This term which is used only on sutra refers to the objects of dream only (maya-matra) but it does not imply that objects of waking state are also illusory. Nor do the sutras speak of the illusory character of the universe. The fact that Badarayana employs the term ananyatva or non-difference to explain the causal relationship between Brah- man and the universe affirms the reality of jagat as a karya (effect) of Brahman for the reason that cause and effect are different states of the same one substance. It can, therefore, be established that the system advocated by Badarayana is savisesa Advaita.

These important points are brought out convincingly by Dr. Chari in his book with unquestionable textual support under ten chapters. The first four chapters discuss comprehensively the na- ture of Brahman and its distinguishing attributes. The fifth chapter explains how Brahman is the material cause of the universe and the latter as its effect is organically related to the former. The sixth chapter deals with the nature of javatman and brings out the integral relationship between jiva and Brahman, although the two are different by virtue of their intrinsic nature. The seventh chapter discusses the nature of sadhana and establishes that upasana or the unceasing meditation on Brahman along with the karma and other ethical requisites is the direct means to moksa. The eighth chapter brings out the fact that in the state of mukti, jiva, after it is liberated from bondage, attains equality with Brahman and enjoys the bliss of Brahman for ever without a return to the mundane existence. The ninth chapter dealing with the Upanisads and the Vedantasutras shows that there is perfect harmony between the two. The final chapter sums up the points of difference and agreement between Badarayana and three acarya in. respect of major doctrines and concludes that Badarayana upholds Theistic Monism (savisesa Advaita) or visista abhedavada.

. This is undoubtedly an authoritative and well referenced work written for the first time in English by a distinguished scholar. It will help students of Vedanta to acquire a deeper insight into the teachings of Vedantasutras.

The Yedantasutra' of Badarayana, also known as Brahmasutra, constitutes the fundamental text of the Vedanta, which is the most important Indian philosophical system. The term 'Vedanta' means the concluding portion of the Vedas known as the Upanisads and as such it should normally refer to the philosophical teachings contained in the Upanisads, These teachings are systematized by Badarayana in the form of aphorisms known as Vedantasutra. Hence in a broad' sense Vedanta stands for the system of philosophy developed on the basis of both the Upanisads and the Vedantasutra. Besides these two source-books, Bhagavadgita is also acknowledged as an important text of the Vedanta, the three constituting as prasthana-traya or the triple foundation of the Vedanta system.

The Vedantasutra is ascribed to the sage Badarayana as is evident from the fact that his name finds a mention in a few sutras in the context of asserting his own view as against those of a few ancient acaryas such as Atreya, Asmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Jaimini, Kasakrtsna, and Karsnajini, According to tradition, he is identified with Vyasa, the author of the Mahabharata and considered as a divine incarnation. If we accept this fact, Badarayana enjoys a great antiquity and would have lived long before Christian era.

The sutras are concise aphoristic sentences and often expressed in a few cryptic words which are pregnant with philosophic ideas." They codify the Upanisadic teachings in a systematic order. Their total number vary from 545 to 564, depending upon how the commentators read some of them either by splitting a single sutra into two or combining two into one. The entire text comprising these sutras are divided into four chapters known as adhyayas. Each chapter is again divided into four parts known as padas. Each part comprises number of topical sections, designated as adhikaranas, each of which consists of either a single or more sutras dealing with a specific subject. The adhikarana follows a methodology adopted in traditional philosophical disputation. It sets down a specific subject for discussion (visaya), raises alternative views on it (samsaya), states prima facie view (purvapaksa), answers it after a methodical examination (uttara) and arrives at the final conclusion (siddhanta) on the subject.The number of adhikaranas again varies from one commentator to another. It is 191 for Samkara, 156 for Ramanuja and 222 for Madhva. This wide variation arises as a result of the manner in which the sutras are grouped together with reference to the subject-matter of the discussion. Despite the changes introduced by the commentators regarding the names and numbering of the adhikaranas, there is some unanimity among them on the general theme of Vedantasutra and the main subject-matter dealt in each adhyaya.

The central theme of Brahmasutra, as the very title indicates, is the study of Brahman, the ultimate metaphysical reality. The very first aphorism commences with the statement that Brahman is to be enquired into. The entire first adhyaya is devoted to discuss the nature of Brahman. At the very beginning it offers a definition of Brahman as the sole cause of the origin, sustenance and dissolution of the universe. On the basis of this criterion, it examines metho- dically all the important passages of the major Upanisads which have a direct and indirect reference to Brahman to determine its nature and rule out from the purview of Reality other ontological entities, such as pradhana (the primordial cosmic matter) of Sam- khya, jiva (the individual self), akasa (cosmic ether), prana (vital breath), etc., which are claimed to be the cause of the universe. After a critical examination of all the relevant Upanisadic texts, it is conclusively established that Brahman is the primary cause of the universe. The first chapter of the Brahmasutra is therefore titled as Samanvayadhyaya or the chapter devoted to establish the correlation of various texts of the Upanisads with Brahman as the ground of the cosmos.

The second adhyaya of Brahmasutra, known as Avirodhadhyaya or the chapter proving the absence of contradictions, is primarily devoted to uphold the .main thesis of the first chapter, viz., that Brahman is the primary cause of the universe by way of refutation of the theories advanced by the rival schools of thought which stand opposed to the Vedanta theory of Reality. The schools which come up for critical examination in the order in which it is stated in the Vedantasutra are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisesika, Buddhism ,jainism, Pasupata, and Pancaratra, This adhyaya also takes up for consider- ation whether or not the jiva and some of the evolutes of Prakrti such as viyat (ether), tejas (fire), vayu (air), prana (vital breath), and indriyas (sense-organs) have an origin unlike Brahman. In this connection, the sutras also deal with the nature of the jiva and its relation to Brahman and also the causal relationship between Brahman and the universe.

The third adhyaya, which is named as Sadhanadhyaya or the chapter dealing with the means of attainment, is devoted to discuss the ways and means of attaining Brahman. In this connection it covers the condition of the jiva in different states for the purpose of developing non-attachment (vairagya), the cultivation of ethical virtues, the fulfilment of other requisite preliminaries for upasana or meditation and the nature of different types of vidyas (medi- tation) to be practised for the realization of Brahman.

The fourth adhyaya which is designated as Phaladhyaya or the chapter dealing with the fruit of spiritual discipline, considers the nature of the Supreme Goal of human endeavour (purusartha) and covers the manner in which the prescribed sadhana is to be observed, the exit of the individual soul from the physical body at the time of liberation from bondage, the path through which liberated soul passes to reach the ultimate goal and the nature of moksa or final liberation from bondage.

This book attempts to present the Philosophy of Vedanta as enunciated by Badarayana in his classic Vedantasutra, the earliest aphoristic manual on the Vedanta system. Though there is an extensive literature on the Vedanta philosophy contributed by modern scholars, both Indian and Western, besides English translations of Brahmasutra along with the principal commentaries, there is no authoritative book which presents objectively and in a systematic manner, the views of Badarayana on Vedanta as enshrined in the sutras. It is generally believed that the cryptic aphorisms expressed in a few words are so vague and incomprehensible that their full import cannot be understood except with the aid of the commentary. Though this observation is partly true, it is possible to make out from the sutras the views of Badarayana on the five fundamental doctrines of Vedanta, namely, the nature of Brahman. the nature of the Individual Self and its relation to Brahman, the nature of the Universe and its relation to Brahman, the nature of the means to attain Brahman and the nature of the Supreme Goal. The important and selected sutras related to these theories are not ambiguous. Most of these are formulated on the basis of the passages of the principal Upanisads. A dispassionate study of these sutras along with the connected Upanisads would reveal the views of Badarayana on the major philosophical doctrines. This is the task which is undertaken in the present work.

The scope of this study is confined to the discussion of the selected adhikaranas that have a direct bearing on the five important doctrines on the basis of an objective evaluation of the comments of Sarnkara, Ramanuja and Madhva on the concerned sutras. Without going into the exegetical and doctrinal details as well as the criticisms and counter criticisms of the commentators, an attempt is made to present the essential points that reveal the true purport of these sutras in order to delineate the views of Badarayana on the Vedanta philosophy. It is hoped that this book will be found useful to the students of Vedanta to get a deeper insight into the philosophy of the Vedantasutra and assess which school of Vedanta represents it faithfully.

In the preparation of this book I have drawn material mostly from the original Sanskrit texts-the three basic commentaries on the Vedantasutra by Samkara, Ramanuja and Madhva and the major Upanisads referred to by them. The subject-matter covered in them is no doubt highway technical and written in terse traditional style replete with subtleties of dialectical arguments, but I have attempted to present the same in as simple and lucid manner as possible to make it comprehensible. In a work of this type the use of the Sanskrit words and quotations is unavoidable, but wherever they are used, an English rendering of them is given along with a glossary of the Sanskrit terms.

It is with great pleasure that I record my obligations. I must first pay my respects to my revered acaryas, the late Sri Gostipuram Sowmyanarayanacharya Swami, the late Sri Madhurantakam Veera- raghavacharya Swami and Sri Saragur Madabhushi Varadacharya Swami, under whom I studied Vedanta in the traditional manner. I am deeply indebted to them. I have derived help and guidance for understanding the crucial Vedantsutras from the traditional scholars, Sri K.S. Varadacharya of Parakala Mutt, Sri Krishna Jois of Samkara Mutt and Sri D. Prahladachar of Purnaprajna Vidyapeetha. I express my grateful thanks to them. I should also thank my esteemed friends, Dr. N.S. Anantharangachar, Sri Anantanarasimhachar, Sri Krishna Prasad Kalale and Sri S. Srinivasachar who have gone through the major part of the typescript and offered useful sug- gestions for improvement. My thanks are also due to all those who have helped me in one way or the other and in particular, to my wife and other family members without whose loving cooperation I would not have completed this book in my advanced age. I also express my grateful thanks to the eminent Sanskrit scholar, Sri N .S. Ramanuja Tatacharya for writing a Foreword to this book.