Once upon a time, in the heart of Odisha, a mountain of jewels was glimmering with the wisdom of Buddha. This was Ratnagiri, mentioned in works of the Tibetan Lama Taranath as a Vihara in Odivisa or Odisha, where over 500 Buddhist monks resided and practiced Tantric Buddhism.
Sources of history- written and material link Ratnagiri and Odisha in general with the ancient philosophies and practices of Buddhism. While it is widely recognized for its contributions to Mahayana Buddhism, Ratnagiri was also a flourishing center for Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, traditions that emphasized esoteric rituals, deity visualization, and the pursuit of enlightenment through non-orthodox means.
The story of Ratnagiri and the development of Buddhist Tantra, however, is a complex and interesting one, that has traveled from Odisha to Tibet and beyond. Resurfacing, thanks to the recent discoveries of artifacts, Ratnagiri once was the home to what we today know as Vajrayana and Kalachakra Tantra.
Vajrasattva Buddha Shakti & Kalachakra Mandala
Ratnagiri established itself as a place of the union of philosophy and power since the time of the Guptas, especially under Narasinghagupta Baladitya. He was followed by the Bhaumakaras from the 7th to 10th century CE, who patronized Ratnagiri which simultaneously developed as a key point in Southeast Asian trade as well as a place of intriguing local and trans-regional cultural exchanges.
During the 8th to 12th centuries CE, Ratnagiri evolved into a significant Vajrayana Buddhist center under the patronage of the Pala rulers. Vajrayana, or the “Diamond Vehicle,” was an advanced form of Mahayana Buddhism that incorporated Tantric rituals, deity worship, and esoteric practices aimed at attaining Buddhahood within a single lifetime.
In 1958-1961, Debala Mitra began an excavation at the site which revealed an inscription- “Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihariyarya Bhikshu Sanghasya”, and thus the spot was recongized as “Ratnagiri”
The archaeological excavations uncovered numerous Vajrayana icons, including sculptures of Achala, Hevajra, Heruka, and Vajrasattva, which indicate the widespread practice of Tantric Buddhism. The presence of Dhyani Buddhas, intricately carved on door lintels and votive stupas, further attests to the monastery’s deep spiritual engagements with esoteric Buddhism.
Though much has been said and still a lot needs to be revealed about the cultural richness of Odisha in the context of Tantric Buddhism, there are a few interesting and unknown facts about Tantric Buddhism that originated in and around Ratnagiri-
Presence of Fierce Gods, Female Deities, and Dakini Cults : Mahakala and Trailokyavijaya- fearsome deities often associated with Buddhist Tantra, these figures suggest the presence of secretive, advanced meditation practices aimed at overcoming inner and outer obstacles. A number of powerful and wrathful gods have been depicted in the statues found at Ratnagiri, including Heruka and Yamari Krishna, a yidam or Ishta devata of Anuttarayoga Tantric texts, worshipped in Nyingma tradition, often as a form of Yamantaka.
Another fascinating aspect is the depiction of Tara, Prajnaparamita, and Vajrayogini, reflecting the important role of female deities in Buddhist Tantra. The emphasis on divine feminine energy highlights Ratnagiri’s engagement with the Dakini cults, where female deities and spiritual guides (Dakinis) played a crucial role in Tantric initiation.
Esoteric Mandalas and Symbolism : The Vajrayana tradition in Ratnagiri made extensive use of Mandalas—intricate cosmic diagrams used in meditation and rituals. Though physical representations of Mandalas have not been fully excavated, inscriptions and texts recovered from the site suggest that monks practiced elaborate visualization techniques, where they would mentally construct Mandalas to channel the power of enlightened beings.
Synthesis of Hindu and Buddhist Tantra : Another rare feature of the Ratnagiri Vajrayana tradition was its syncretic approach, integrating elements from Hindu Tantra. Certain depictions of deities share similarities with Shaiva and Shakta iconography, reflecting an interchange of esoteric practices between Hinduism and Buddhism in the region.
Role of Siddhas and Tantric Masters: Ratnagiri was home to several Siddhas (realized masters) who were known for their unique and experimental approaches to enlightenment. Textual sources and inscriptions suggest that these practitioners engaged in Charyapada traditions, a collection of esoteric songs composed by Tantric adepts in a mystical language known as Sandhya Bhasha (twilight language).
The presence of Shaiva and Shakta traditions in Odisha predates Vajrayana Buddhism, making one wonder- to what extent do these three interact with one another? The answers are not as hidden as the mysteries of Tantra.
👉🏿 Shaivism, with its emphasis on asceticism and mystical realization, found expression in the widespread worship of Bhairava and the establishment of Shaiva Siddhanta doctrines. Shaktism, centered around the divine feminine, permeated the landscape through the veneration of Mahishamardini, Chamunda, and Tara—deities who later assumed prominence in Tantric Buddhism.
👉🏿 One of the most compelling intersections between these traditions is the iconography of the Buddhist goddess Tara. While she is revered in Vajrayana as a bodhisattva and savior, her fierce forms such as Mahachinakrama Tara bear resemblance to the wrathful manifestations of Durga and Kali in Shakta worship. Similarly, the depiction of Yoginis, found in the Chausath Yogini temples of Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial, echoes the Dakini cults of Vajrayana monasteries, where dakinis serve as enlightened wisdom beings aiding tantric practitioners.
👉🏿 The concept of Kundalini, central to both Shaiva and Shakta practices, is mirrored in Vajrayana’s focus on the subtle body and energy channels (nadis). The ritual consumption of pancha makaras (five symbolic substances) in Tantric rites further underlines the shared framework between these powerful traditions.
Before we move ahead, let us look at some clear interactions between the Hindu and Buddhist Tantric traditions that gave Tantrayana its initial complexities, which only grew with time-
Tantric traditions—whether Shaiva, Shakta, or Vajrayana—work on a shared ritual structure that revolves around mantra (sacred syllables), mudra (hand gestures), and mandala (cosmic diagrams). At Ratnagiri, mandalas featuring Buddhist Vajrayana deities mirror the geometric patterns of Sri Yantra, a Shakta ritual tool.
This suggests a shared cosmology where the union of male and female deities symbolizes liberation. The popularity of the Mandala as a basic and potent symbol crossed religious boundaries, and inscriptional evidence shows the presence of Maha-Mandala Acharya (master expert in drawing powerful Mandalas), in the Buddhist context.
Odisha is the abode of the Yoginis, the 64 fierce, independent goddesses worshipped in circular temples. These goddesses bear an uncanny resemblance to the Buddhist Dakinis—semi-divine female beings in Vajrayana Tantra. The Hirapur Yogini temple, outside Bhubaneswar, is an example of Odisha’s local feminine traditions that likely influenced Ratnagiri's Buddhist iconography. Dakinis, like the Shakta Yoginis, were considered guides on the tantric spiritual path, bridging the two traditions.
The Nath Yogis, an esoteric Shaiva sect founded by Gorakhnath, was active in Odisha and practiced Hatha Yoga, which focused on bodily transformation through breath control and inner alchemy. Their practices closely align with the Buddhist Mahasiddhas, or tantric adepts, who sought spiritual enlightenment through unconventional means, including the transmutation of sensual energy into higher wisdom. Many Buddhist Siddhas, such as Virupa and Padmasambhava, are believed to have engaged in practices that parallel Shaiva and Shakta tantric disciplines.
Virupa and Padmasambhava
The inscriptions and artifacts at Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, and Lalitgiri provide crucial evidence of tantric syncretism.
☛ Metallic and stone images of Heruka and Chakrasamvara found at Ratnagiri bear Shaivite influences in their adornments and trident motifs (ASI Report, 1958).
☛ Ritual objects such as vajras and kapalas (skulls) resemble those used in Shaiva ascetic traditions and Shakta cremation ground rites.
☛ Buddhist and Shaiva temples in Odisha share similar tantric ritual manuals, such as the Kularnava Tantra (Shaiva) and Guhyasamaja Tantra (Buddhist), both emphasizing the transformation of the body into a divine vessel.
One of the clearest examples of the contact and exchange between Hindu Shakta Tantra and Vajrayana Buddhism in Ratnagiri is the case of Tara, the Buddhist deity who is most prominently worshipped for liberation and protection. Odisha is a land of the goddesses and in this region, Tara took as many forms as the needs of her devotees.
Statues of Tara where the goddess is two-armed, in her gentle aspect are some of the most commonly found religious artifacts from the site of Ratnagiri. However, the more intriguing depictions of Tara are as- Durgottarini Tara (the guardian aspect of Green Tara), and Mahachina Tara (blue or dark-skinned Tara) who is four-armed, with a skull cup, knife, sword, and utpala (lotus)- an imagery similar to Kali.
In the inscriptions, seals, and amulets of Ratnagiri, the term- “Tarabala Mararodhana” has been found, revering Tara for protection against the demon Mara. Mara is most popularly narrated in the episode of Buddha-Mara-Vijaya, where Siddhartha Gautama defeated the forces of the demon of desire and declared his enlightenment by calling the earth to bear witness for him. The legend is retold in Odisha with Tara at its center, in a similar way that the local and Hindu goddesses are praised for their battle and victory over demons.
Kali, another powerful Hindu goddess, shares striking iconographic elements with Ugra Tara (Fierce Tara), a form that appears in both Odisha and Tibetan Vajrayana traditions. Both Kali and Ugra Tara are dark-skinned, adorned with skull garlands, and stand upon corpses, symbolizing the transcendence of death and ignorance.
It is interesting to note that Ugra Tara was also the goddess (not the Buddhist Ugra Tara) of the Eastern Ganga rulers of Odisha, a dynasty that ruled Odisha and the surrounding region for a long period. Ugra Tara was revered by the local devotees as the supreme protector, who became Ekajati or Nila Saraswati, a gentler version of her children. In Buddhism, Ugra Tara and Ekajati became the forms of Tara, who, like the Hindu goddess Durga, is positioned as the fountainhead and origin of all other female divinities.
The Yogini tradition of Odisha provides a crucial but often overlooked connection between local mother goddess worship and the later Buddhist Tantric manifestations of Tara. The 64 Yoginis were powerful female deities worshipped in circular, open-air temples, such as the famous Hirapur Yogini Temple (9th-10th century CE).
These Yoginis, often depicted with animal heads and fierce expressions, were seen as independent deities, much like the Dakinis of Vajrayana Buddhism. Several Yoginis and goddesses of Odisha bear attributes strikingly similar to forms of Tara found in later Tibetan Buddhism:
☛ Varahi (Boar-faced Yogini) - Resembles the fierce boar-headed Buddhist deity Vajravarahi, an emanation of Tara.
☛ Chhinnamasta (Headless Goddess) - A Shakta deity often linked to Tara’s Chinnamunda form, where she appears as a self-decapitated goddess.
☛ Chamunda (Wrathful Aspect of Durga) - Shares commonalities with Ekajati, a wrathful form of Tara in Tibetan Buddhism.
This suggests that the iconography and spiritual functions of Odisha’s goddesses directly influenced the transformation of Tara into a more diverse and multifaceted deity in Buddhist Tantra.
Archaeological excavations at Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri, and Udayagiri reveal fascinating images of Tara in multiple forms, many of which incorporate motifs from Hindu Shakta and local folk traditions:
☛ Tara statues from Ratnagiri often depict her with a sword and a lotus, reminiscent of Durga’s warrior aspect.
☛ Mahachinakrama Tara from Lalitgiri shows her in a wrathful stance, resembling a Yogini or Kali in battle mode.
☛ Stupa carvings at Udayagiri feature scenes of Tara rescuing beings from suffering, echoing Jagannath’s role as a universal savior in Odisha’s religious consciousness.
These findings indicate that Odisha’s Tantric Buddhist centers were not isolated but were actively engaged with local religious traditions, creating a hybrid iconography that later traveled to Tibet and beyond. Tara’s journey from the Mahaviharas of Ratnagiri to the sacred monasteries of Tibet is not just a story of artistic transmission but of resilience of devotion, and the interwoven destinies of India and Tibet.
As the Bodhisattva who responds with immediacy to the cries of suffering beings, it is not difficult to see why she was intermingled with Hindu goddesses like Durga, Kali, and Chamunda, known to be prompt in answering the calls of their devotees. After all, whether in Hinduism or Buddhism or Tantric Buddhism, a mother, is a mother.
Odisha is not just a chapter in Buddhist history—it is an unmissable, unforgettable epic of spiritual and cultural evolution. It stands as a sacred confluence of Tantra, Vajrayana, and indigenous traditions, forming a vital link between India, Tibet, and Nepal. Even after its Buddhist centers declined under the Sultanate rule, their impact remained, shaping the Tantric-Buddhist traditions of the Himalayan world.
The Pag Sam Jon Zang, a Tibetan chronicle from 1747 CE, recalls Ratnagiri as the birthplace of the Kalachakra Tantra, while Chinese sources recognize an Odisha king as a key figure in spreading Tantrayana to China. This historical footprint cements Odisha’s role in exporting Buddhist Tantra beyond the Indian subcontinent, influencing rituals, art, and philosophy in regions far beyond its borders.
Odisha’s impact extends to the Tibetan Buddhist Chöd practice, which bears remarkable parallels to Shakta Tantric rituals of self-sacrifice, suggesting a deep cultural and ritualistic exchange. Scholars believe that during the Pala period (8th–12th century CE), Buddhist monks from Odisha introduced wrathful forms of Tara and Dakini practices to Tibet, further embedding its esoteric influence in Himalayan Buddhism.
What better way to understand the richness of Odisha’s culture, than the iconographical beauty of its site, such as Ratnagiri? The discovery of Heruka, Padmapani, and Vajrapani as central deities, alongside Gajalakshmi, Panchika (Jambhala/Kubera), Vidyadharas, and Nagas, paints a vivid picture of a place that not only housed Buddhist thought but also absorbed and transformed local Hindu and folk elements. The artistic and ritualistic expressions here reveal a site that breathed, evolved, and interacted with its surroundings, shaping a living tradition that still echoes in contemporary Buddhist and Hindu Tantra.
1. Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons
2. https://www.peepultree.world/livehistoryindia/story/monuments/ratnagiri-buddhist-complex-the-birthplace-of-vajrayana
3. https://www.outlooktraveller.com/experiences/spiritual/budhhist-trail-in-Orissa
4. https://theprint.in/opinion/the-great-monastery-of-ratnagiri-this-is-how-buddhism-thrived-in-medieval-Orissa/1566526/
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